The Development of Core Christian Teachings:
Ecumenical Councils
by Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D.

Who is Jesus? How can one describe his relationship with God? What is the role of the Holy Spirit? What do Christians believe about Mary, and the saints? What about life and the after-life? What is the relationship of Christianity to Judaism? What books belong in the Bible? What is the Church and how should it be organized? What is the role of the bishops, esp. the bishop of Rome (the Pope)?

Such questions and many others have occupied Christians from the earliest generations. For the first few centuries after the life and death of Jesus, as Christianity slowly grew and spread throughout the Roman Empire, Christian teachings were developed and passed on by wandering preachers and local community leaders. Sometimes the leaders would hold local or regional meetings to discuss problems and debate issues, but large-scale meetings were rarely if ever possible in the first 300 years, due to the great distances, traveling difficulties, and sporadic persecutions of Christians by the Roman Empire.

The First Eight Ecumenical Councils:

After Christianity became a legal religion within the Roman Empire under Emperor Constantine (AD 312), the leaders (bishops) of the Christian communities throughout the Mediterranean world could more easily meet to discuss important issues, debate current questions, reject heterodox opinions, and more clearly define their faith. These large meetings of bishops, called "Ecumenical Councils," also produced some of the earliest and most concise statements of belief (called "Creeds"), which are still foundational for the Christian religion. The first eight councils are recognized by most Christians throughout the world today.

# Council Name 
/ Location
Dates Teachers and Teachings Rejected Orthodox Doctrines Decreed

# Attend

Influential Leaders
 1  Nicea
325
Arians: Jesus was divine, but slightly inferior to the Father; Jesus was the first being created in time by God; slogan: "there was a time when he was not." Jesus is divine, "of the same substance" (homo-ousios) as the Father, and was with the Father from the very first moment of creation. Sunday was fixed as the date for celebration of Easter. The "Nicene Creed" was written and adopted.
318
Emperor Constantine,
Athanasius of Alexandria
2 Constantinople I
381
Apollinarians: divided human & divine parts of Jesus; Arianism also still prominent; and followers of Macedonius said the Holy Spirit was a divine messenger, but not fully God. The teachings of Nicea were confirmed and expanded; the Holy Spirit is also fully divine; thus the Trinity has one divine "nature," but three distinct "persons."
~150
Emperor Theodosius,
Pope Damasus,
Cappadocian Fathers
3 Ephesus
431
Nestorians: Mary is the "Mother of Christ," but should not be called the "Mother of God," so that Jesus' humanity is not neglected. Mary is traditionally and properly called the "Mother of God"; Jesus has both a divine and human nature, but united in his one person.
200+
Cyril of Alexandria
4 Chalcedon
451
Monophysites: Jesus was both human and divine, but he had only "one nature"; his divinity totally replaced his human nature. The earthly Jesus was both fully human and fully divine; his two natures and two wills were perfectly united in his one person.
150+
Pope Leo the Great
5 Constantinople II
553
Various errors of Origen, Theodoret, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Ibas of Edessa. The teachings of the first four Councils, esp. Chalcedon, are reconfirmed
~165
.
6 Constantinople III
680-681
Monotheletism: Christ has only one divine "will." Christ has both a human and a divine will.
~175
.
7 Nicea II
787
Iconoclasm: all images should be destroyed The veneration of icons and images is permitted.
300+
.
8 Constantinople IV
869
Photian Schism: defenders vs. detractors of Bishop Photius This council was ultimately unsuccessful; no further councils were held in the East.
~110
Pope Adrian II

The Rest of the 21 Ecumenical Councils:

After tensions had been building for centuries, the "Great Schism" of 1054 led to the separation of Eastern and Western Christians. Orthodox Christians of the East do not accept the legitimacy of any further councils, believing that the Christian faith was sufficiently defined through the decisions and documents of the first eight councils. After a gap of several centuries, however, the bishops of the Western Church continued holding periodic councils to debate new issues, address contemporary problems, promulgate new reforms, and define Christian teachings more precisely:

# Council Name / Location Dates Main Topics / Results # Attend Presiding Pope(s)
9 Lateran I
1123
Ended the practice of Lay Investiture; implemented other reforms; called a crusade.
~900
Callistus II
10 Lateran II
1139
Condemned the errors of Arnold of Brescia.
~1000
Innocent II
11 Lateran III
1179
Condemned the Albigensians and Waldensians; issued other decrees for moral reforms.
~300
Alexander III
12 Lateran IV
1215
Again condemned errors of Albigensians and others; issued over 70 decrees for wide-ranging reforms.
~1300
Innocent III
13 Lyons I
1245
Excommunicated and deposed Emperor Frederick II; called a new crusade.
~140
Innocent IV
14 Lyons II
1274
Temporarily reunited the Greek and Roman Churches; set rules for papal elections.
~1500
Gregory X
15 Vienne
1311-13
Addressed problems of the Knights Templar, Beguines, other groups;
planned for another crusade and instituted more clerical and educational reforms.
~300
Clement V
16 Constance
1414-18
Ended the Western Schism; elected Pope Martin V; issued decrees against John Wycliffe & Johan Hus.
?
Gregory XI
17 Basel (& Ferrara& Florence)
1431-39
Addressed problems in Bohemia; attempted reunion with the Eastern Church.
?
Eugene IV
18 Lateran V
1512-17
Issued minor disciplinary decrees; planned another crusade against the Turks.
~100
Julius II
& Leo X
19 Trent
1545-63
Addressed the challenges of Luther and other Reformers;
issued many decrees to define Church doctrine and reform Church discipline.
~450
Paul III, Julius III,
Pius IV
20 Vatican I
1869-70
Three sessions were planned, but only the first was held, due to wars in Europe;
formally defined the infallibility of the Pope when he teaches "ex cathedra."
~800
Pius IX
21 Vatican II
1962-65
Updated the Church for the 20th Century, by rediscovering our roots in Early Christianity;
finished and expanded the agenda of Vatican I, focusing not only on the Pope but on all Christians;
issued 16 documents (4"Constitutions," 9 "Decrees," 3 "Declarations")
up to
2,860
John XXIII
& Paul IV
22 Vatican III ? or Nairobi I?
20xx ?
Updating the world-wide Church for the 21st Century?
?
?

The Documents of Vatican II:

Bibliography:

 


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